From basics to cutting-edge: Comparison of learning C language and Python

std::chrono is used in C to process time, including obtaining the current time, measuring execution time, operation time point and duration, and formatting analysis time. 1. Use std::chrono::system_clock::now() to obtain the current time, which can be converted into a readable string, but the system clock may not be monotonous; 2. Use std::chrono::steady_clock to measure the execution time to ensure monotony, and convert it into milliseconds, seconds and other units through duration_cast; 3. Time point (time_point) and duration (duration) can be interoperable, but attention should be paid to unit compatibility and clock epoch (epoch)

There are many initialization methods in C, which are suitable for different scenarios. 1. Basic variable initialization includes assignment initialization (inta=5;), construction initialization (inta(5);) and list initialization (inta{5};), where list initialization is more stringent and recommended; 2. Class member initialization can be assigned through constructor body or member initialization list (MyClass(intval):x(val){}), which is more efficient and suitable for const and reference members. C 11 also supports direct initialization within the class; 3. Array and container initialization can be used in traditional mode or C 11's std::array and std::vector, support list initialization and improve security; 4. Default initialization

Object slice refers to the phenomenon that only part of the base class data is copied when assigning or passing a derived class object to a base class object, resulting in the loss of new members of the derived class. 1. Object slices occur in containers that directly assign values, pass parameters by value, or store polymorphic objects in storage base classes; 2. The consequences include data loss, abnormal behavior and difficult to debug; 3. Avoiding methods include passing polymorphic objects using pointers or references, or using smart pointers to manage the object life cycle.

To determine whether std::optional has a value, you can use the has_value() method or directly judge in the if statement; when returning a result that may be empty, it is recommended to use std::optional to avoid null pointers and exceptions; it should not be abused, and Boolean return values or independent bool variables are more suitable in some scenarios; the initialization methods are diverse, but you need to pay attention to using reset() to clear the value, and pay attention to the life cycle and construction behavior.

RAII is an important technology used in resource management in C. Its core lies in automatically managing resources through the object life cycle. Its core idea is: resources are acquired at construction time and released at destruction, thereby avoiding leakage problems caused by manual release. For example, when there is no RAII, the file operation requires manually calling fclose. If there is an error in the middle or return in advance, you may forget to close the file; and after using RAII, such as the FileHandle class encapsulates the file operation, the destructor will be automatically called after leaving the scope to release the resource. 1.RAII is used in lock management (such as std::lock_guard), 2. Memory management (such as std::unique_ptr), 3. Database and network connection management, etc.

There are four common methods to obtain the first element of std::vector: 1. Use the front() method to ensure that the vector is not empty, has clear semantics and is recommended for daily use; 2. Use the subscript [0], and it also needs to be judged empty, with the performance comparable to front() but slightly weaker semantics; 3. Use *begin(), which is suitable for generic programming and STL algorithms; 4. Use at(0), without manually null judgment, but low performance, and throw exceptions when crossing the boundary, which is suitable for debugging or exception handling; the best practice is to call empty() first to check whether it is empty, and then use the front() method to obtain the first element to avoid undefined behavior.

Pure virtual functions are the key mechanisms used in C to define abstract classes and interfaces, and their core role is to force derived classes to implement specific methods. 1. The pure virtual function is declared through virtualvoidfunc()=0; and the implementation is not provided, making the class an abstract class and cannot be instantiated; 2. It is used to simulate the interface to ensure that the subclass must rewrite the method, such as the draw() of the Shape base class in the graphics library; 3. Supports runtime polymorphism, allowing the base class pointer to call the implementation of different subclasses; 4. Although the abstract class cannot create objects, it can contain constructors, member variables and implemented ordinary functions; 5. If the derived class does not fully implement all pure virtual functions, it will also become an abstract class; 6. In special cases, the pure virtual function can provide default implementation for derivation.

ThemoveassignmentoperatorinC isaspecialmemberfunctionthatefficientlytransfersresourcesfromatemporaryobjecttoanexistingone.ItisdefinedasMyClass&operator=(MyClass&&other)noexcept;,takinganon-constrvaluereferencetoallowmodificationofthesour