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Java Programming Thoughts Learning Lesson (1): Chapters 1~13, 16

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Objects

#1.1 Interchangeable objects with polymorphism

  Using object-oriented programming languages Understand the concept of late binding. When sending a message to an object, the code being called cannot be determined until runtime. Also called dynamic binding.
 The compiler ensures the existence of the called method and performs type checking on the calling parameters and return values ​​(Java is a strongly typed language, and languages ​​that cannot provide such guarantees are is called weakly typed), but does not know the exact code that will be executed.
 In some languages, you must explicitly declare that you want a method to have the flexibility brought by late-binding properties (C uses the virtual keyword to achieve this). In these languages, methods are not dynamically bound by default. In Java, dynamic binding is the default behavior (except for static methods, final methods and private methods, all other methods in Java are dynamically bound), there is no need to add additional keywords to Implement polymorphism.
 The process of treating a derived class as its base class is called upcasting

1.2 Single-root inheritance structure

 In Java ( In fact, including all OOP languages ​​except C), all classes ultimately inherit from a single base class, and the name of this ultimate base class is Object.
Benefits of a single-root inheritance structure:

  • In a single-root inheritance structure, all objects have a common interface, so they are all of the same basic type in the final analysis.

  • The single-root inheritance structure ensures that all objects have certain functions.

  • The single-root inheritance structure makes the implementation of the garbage collector much easier, and the garbage collector is one of the important improvements over C. Since all objects are guaranteed to have their type information, you won't get zombied by being unable to determine the type of an object. This is especially important for system-level operations (such as exception handling) and brings greater flexibility to programming.

1.3 Creation and lifetime of objects

  • Where is the data of the object located (scope):

    • Achieve this by placing objects on the stack (they are sometimes called automatic variables or scoped variables) or in a static storage area. This approach prioritizes storage space allocation and deallocation, and in some cases such control is very valuable. However, flexibility is also sacrificed.

    • The second way is to dynamically create objects in a memory pool called the heap. In this approach, you don't know until runtime how many objects are needed, what their lifetime is, and what their specific types are.

  Java completely adopts dynamic memory allocation (basic types are just a special case). Whenever you want to create an object, you use the new keyword to build a dynamic instance of the object.

  • Life cycle of objects:
    Java's garbage collector is designed to handle memory release issues.

Chapter 2 Everything is an Object

2.1 Special Case: Basic Type

  A basic type is an "automatic" variable that is not a reference. This variable stores the "value" directly and is placed on the stack, making it more efficient. The storage space occupied by Java's basic types does not change with changes in the machine hardware architecture. This invariance in the size of the storage space is one of the reasons why Java programs are more portable than programs written in most other languages.

Basic typeSizeMinimum valueMaximum valueWrapper classboolean---Booleanbyte8 bits-128 127Bytechar16 bitsUnicode 0Unicode 2Charactershort16 bits-215int3232float##long64 bits-2-1double64 bitsIEEE754IEEE754Doublevoid---Void

ˆ ˆ All numerical types have positive and negative signs
ˆ ˆ The size of the storage space occupied by the boolean type is not clearly specified (depends on the implementation of the specific virtual machine), it is only defined to be able to take words Face value true or false.

2.2 Arrays in Java

 — Java ensures that arrays will be initialized. and cannot be accessed outside its scope. This range check comes at the cost of a small amount of memory overhead per array and a runtime subscript check.

"In-depth Understanding of Java Virtual Machine":
Access to arrays in the Java language is relatively safer than C/C because: if there is a one-dimensional array whose element type is mypackage.MyClass, then the virtual machine will automatically generate an array that directly inherits from Subclass of java.lang.Object[Lmypackage.MyClass, creation action is performed by bytecode instructionsnewarraytrigger. This class represents a one-dimensional array with an element type of mypackage.MyClass. The properties and methods that should be included in the array (only the length property modified as public can be used directly by the user) andclone()method) are all implemented in this class. Access to arrays in the Java language is relatively safer than C/C because this class encapsulates the access methods of array elements (To be precise, out-of-bounds checks are not encapsulated in access to array elements. class, but encapsulated in the xaload, xastore bytecode for array access), while C/C Directly translated as moving the array pointer.

// NotInit.javapackage mypackage;
class MyClass{    static{
        System.out.println("MyClass Init...");
    }
}public class NotInit{    public static void main(String[] args){
        MyClass[] a = new MyClass[3];
    }   
}/*
* 没有输出,说明数组元素没有初始化(虚拟机自动生成了别的类)。
*/
  • The array object is actually a reference array, and each element will be initialized to null.

  • Arrays of basic data types, the compiler will set all the memory occupied by this array to zero.

  • In the Java language, when an array out of bounds is detected, an java.lang.ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException exception will be thrown.

2.3 Scope

1. The difference between Java and C/C regarding scope: As follows, for Java, it is illegal, And it is legal for C/C. (The practice of "hiding" a scope variable in C/C is not allowed in Java. Because Java designers believe that doing so will cause program confusion.)

{    int x = 12;
    {        int x = 96;     // Illegal for Java, but legal for C/C++
    }
}

  2. Java objects do not have the same life cycle as basic types. When using new to create a Java object, it can survive outside the scope . For example:

{    String s = new String("a string");
}   // End of scope

The reference s disappears at the end of the scope. However, the String object pointed to by s still continues to occupy memory space .

2.4 import keyword

The import keyword instructs the compiler to import a package, that is, a class library (in other languages, a library not only contains classes, but may also include methods and data, But all code in Java must be written in classes).
Specific classes java.lang will be automatically imported into every Java file.

2.5 static keyword

5.1 The static keyword can meet the needs of the following two situations:
  • You only want to specify a certain A specific domain allocates a single storage space, regardless of how many objects are created in the space, or even does not create any objects at all.

    It is expected that a method will not be associated with any object of the class that contains it. In other words, even if
  • no object is created, this method

    can still be called.

     Some object-oriented languages ​​use the terms
class data

and class method, Represents those data and methods that exist only as the entire class, not as a specific object of the class. Example: 5.2 static field

class StaticTest{
    static int i = 47;
}

Create two objects as follows, st1.i and st2.i point to the same storage space,
share the same
i

so they have the same value 47.

StaticTest st1 = new StaticTest();
StaticTest st2 = new StaticTest();
5.3 static method

When applied to fields, it will change the way data is created, but when applied to methods, there is no difference. So big. An important usage of the
    static
  • method is to call

    it without creating any objects. This is important for defining the main() method (so the main() method is a satic method), which is the entry point when running an application .

  •   和其它任何方法一样,static方法可以创建或使用与其类型相同的被命名对象,因此,static方法常常拿来做“牧羊人”的角色,负责看护与其隶属同一类型的实例群。

  •   static方法的含义static方法就是没有this的方法。关于static方法内部是否能调用非静态方法:因为没有this,就没有对象,所以不能直接调用非静态方法,但可以传递一个对象引用到静态方法里,然后通过这个引用(和this效果相同)来调用非静态方法和访问非静态数据成员

  • 有些人认为static方法不是面向对象”的,因为它们的确具有全局函数的语义;使用static方法时,由于不存在this,所以不是通过“向对象发送消息”的方式来完成的。

第3章 关系操作符

3.1 测试对象的等价性

  • ==!= 比较的是对象的引用

  • 特殊方法equals()默认行为也是比较引用

// Equivalence.javapublic class Equivalence{    public static void main(String[] args){
        Integer n1 = new Integer(47);
        Integer n2 = new Integer(47);
        System.out.println(n1 == n2);
        System.out.println(n1 != n2);
        System.out.println(n1.equals(n2));

        Value v1 = new Value();
        Value v2 = new Value();
        v1.i = v2.i = 47;
        System.out.println(v1.equals(v2));
    }

}
class Value{    int i;
}/* Output:
* false
* true
* true
* false
*/

  以上,
1. n1n2 是两个不同的引用(明显是两个不同的存储区域),所以二者 !=
2. equals() 方法是所有对象的特殊方法(继承自Object类),Integer重定义了equals()方法以比较其内容是否相等,所以这里n1.equals(n2)trueequals()不适用于“基本类型”,基本类型直接使用==!=即可。
3. v1.equals(v2)false 验证了 equals()方法默认行为是比较引用,除非在自定义类Value中重定义 equals()方法。

3.2 直接常量

  • 有时直接常量的类型是模棱两可的,这就需要与直接常量相关的某些字符来额外增加一些信息以“指导”编译器,使其能够准确地知道要生成什么样的类型。如果编译器能够正确地识别类型,就不必在数值后增加字符。

  • 在C、C++或者Java中,二进制数没有直接常量表示方法。但是,在使用十六进制和进制的记数法时,以二进制形式显示结果将非常有用。通过使用IntegerLong类的静态方法toBinaryString()可以很容易地实现这一点。注意,如果将比较小的类型传递给Integer.toBinaryString()方法,则该类型将自动转换为int

// Literals.javapublic class Literals{    public static void main(String[] args){        int i1 = 0x2f;  // Hexadecimal (lowercase)
        System.out.println("i1: " + Integer.toBinaryString(i1));        int i2 = 0X2F;  // Hexadecimal (uppercase)
        System.out.println("i2: " + Integer.toBinaryString(i2));        int i3 = 0177;  // Octal (leading zero)
        System.out.println("i3: " + Integer.toBinaryString(i3));        char c = 0xffff;    // max char hex value
        System.out.println("c: " + Integer.toBinaryString(c));        byte b = 0x7f;  // max short hex value
        System.out.println("b: " + Integer.toBinaryString(b));        short s = 0x7fff;   // max short hex value
        System.out.println("s: " + Integer.toBinaryString(s));        long n1 = 200L; // long suffix
        long n2 = 200l; // long suffix (but can be confusing)
        long n3 = 200;        float f1 = 1;        float f2 = 1F;  // float suffix
        float f3 = 1f;  // float suffix
        double d1 = 1d; // double suffix
        double d2 = 1D; // dobule suffix
        // (Hex and Octal also work with long)
    }    /* OUtput:
    * i1: 101111
    * i2: 101111
    * i3: 1111111
    * c: 1111111111111111
    * b: 1111111
    * s: 111111111111111
    * */}
  • 指数计数法。在C、C++以及Java中,e 代表“10的幂次”,与科学与工程领域中“e”代表自然对数的基数(约等于2.718,Java中的Math.E给出了更精确的double型的值)不同

    根据John Kirkham的描述,Java语言中 e 与 科学工程领域不同,可能跟60年代的FORTRAN有关。
// Exponents.java// "e" means "10 to the power."public class Exponents {    public static void main(String[] args){        // Uppercase and lowercase 'e' are the same:
        float expFloat = 1.39E-43f;
        expFloat = 1.39e-43f;
        System.out.println(expFloat);        double expDouble = 47e47d;  // 'd' is optional
        double expDouble2 = 47e47;  // Automaticall double
        System.out.println(expDouble);
    }    /* Output:
     *1.39E-43
     *4.7E48
     */}

3.3 类型转换(cast)操作符

  • Java中布尔类型,不允许进行任何类型的转换处理,其它基本类型都可转换成别的基本数据类型。

  • 将float和double转型为整型值时,总是对该数字执行截尾。如果想要得到舍入的结果,就需要使用java.lang.Math中的round()方法。

    // CastingNumbers.java// What happens when you cast a float or double to an integral value ?public class CastingNumbers{    public static void main(String[] args){        double above = 0.7, below = 0.4;        float fabove = 0.7f, fbelow = 0.4f;
    
            System.out.println("(int)above: " + (int)above);
            System.out.println("(int)below: " + (int)below);
            System.out.println("(int)fabove: " + (int)fabove);
            System.out.println("(int)fbelow: " + (int)fbelow);
    
            System.out.println("Math.round(above): " + Math.round(above));
            System.out.println("Math.round(above): " + Math.round(above));
            System.out.println("Math.round(below): " + Math.round(below));
            System.out.println("Math.round(fabove): " + Math.round(fabove));
            System.out.println("Math.round(fbelow): " + Math.round(fbelow));
    
        }
    }/* Output:
    (int)above: 0
    (int)below: 0
    (int)fabove: 0
    (int)fbelow: 0
    Math.round(above): 1
    Math.round(below): 0
    Math.round(fabove): 1
    Math.round(fbelow): 0
    */
  • 提升。如果对基本类型执行算术运算或按位运算,只要类型比int小(即charbyte或者short),那么在运算之前,这些值会自动转换成int。这样一来,最终生成的结果就是int型。如果想把结果赋值给较小的类型,就必须使用类型转换(既然把结果赋给了较小的类型,就可能出现信息丢失)。通常,表达式中出现的最大的数据类型决定了表达式最终结果的数据类型。如果一个float值与一个double值相乘,结果就是double,如果将一个int和一个long值相加,则结果就为long。

  • 溢出。如果对两个足够大的int值执行乘法运算,结果就会溢出。编译器不会发出错误或警告信息,运行时也不会出现异常。这说明Java虽然是好东西,但也没有那么好!

    // Overflow.java// Surprise! Java lets you overflow.public class Overflow{    public static void main(String[] args){        int big = Integer.MAX_VALUE;
            System.out.println("big = " + big);        int big1 = big + 1;
            System.out.println("big1 = " + big1);        int bigger = big * 4;
            System.out.println("bigger = " + bigger);       
        }
    }/* Output:
    big = 2147483647
    big1 = -2147483648
    bigger = -4
    */

3.4 Java没有sizeof()操作符

  在C和C++中,sizeof()操作符可以告诉你为数据项分配的字节数。使用这个操作符的最大原因是为了进行一些与存储空间有关的运算,使程序可以在不同平台上“移植”。而Java不需要sizeof()操作符来满足这方面的需要,因为所有数据类型在所有机器中的大小是相同的。我们不必考虑移植问题——它已经被设计在语言中了。

第4章 控制执行流程

4.1 true 和 false

  注意Java不允许我们将一个数字作为布尔值使用,这与C和C++ 不同(C/C++中,“真”是非零,而“假”是零)。如果将数字作为布尔表达式,Java编译器会直接报错

4.2 switch

  switch要求使用一个选择因子:

  • 在JDK5之前,选择因子必须是int或char那样的整数值。

  • JDK1.5开始,Java增加了新特性enum,使得enum可以与switch协调工作。

  • JDK1.7开始,switch开始支持String作为选择因子。在switch语句中,String的比较用的是String.equals()。因此,需要注意,传给switch的String变量不能为null,同时switch的case子句中使用的字符串也不能为null。显然是因为:

    • 如果switch传入的是null,则在运行时对null对象调用hashCode(String.equals()会调用)方法会出现NullPointException

    • 如果case写的是null,那么在编译时无法求出hashCode,因此编译时就会报错。

  switch支持String只是一个语法糖,由javac来负责生成相应的代码。底层的JVM在switch上并没有进行修改

第5章 初始化与清理(cleanup)

5.1 方法重载(method overloading)

  重载方法,方法名相同,形式参数列表不同(参数列表又叫参数签名,包括参数的类型、参数的个数和参数的顺序,只要有一个不同就叫做参数列表不同)。重载是面向对象的一个基本特性。

  • 声明为final的方法不能被重载

  • 声明为static的方法不能重载,但是能够被再次声明。

  • 重载方法的返回类型可以相同也可以不同,但仅返回类型不同不足以成为方法的重载。

  • 编译器根据调用方法的签名逐个匹配,以选择对应方法的过程叫做重载分辨(Overload Resolution,或叫重载决议)

    1. 《深入理解Java虚拟机》:虚拟机(准确地说是编译器)在重载时是通过参数的静态类型(Static Type )或叫外观类型(Apparent Type)而不是实际类型(Actual Type)作为判定依据的
    2. 《深入理解Java虚拟机》:编译期间选择静态分派目标的过程是Java语言实现方法重载的本质

5.2 this 关键字

  `this` 关键字只能在方法内部使用,表示对“**调用方法的那个对象**”的引用。

5.3 清理:终结处理和垃圾回收

5.3.1 finalize()
  • Java中的finalize()不等于C++中的析构函数

  • 发生“垃圾回收”时,finalize()才得到调用

  • Java里的对象并非总是被垃圾回收(因为Java的“垃圾回收”并不能保证一定会发生)

    • 对象可能不被垃圾回收

    • 垃圾回收并不等于“析构”

  • Java并未提供“析构函数”或相似的概念,Java的“垃圾回收不保证一定会发生,所以要做类似的清理工作,必须自己动手创建一个执行清理工作的普通方法。

  • 只要程序没有濒临存储空间用完的那一刻,垃圾回收可能就会一直没有发生。这个策略是恰当的,因为垃圾回收本身也有开销,要是不使用它,那就不用支付这部分开销了。

5.3.2 finalize()用途何在

  由于垃圾回收器会负责释放对象占据的所有内存,这就将finalize()的需求限制到一种特殊情况,即通过某种创建对象方式以外的方式为对象分配了存储空间。由于Java中一切皆为对象,所以那种特殊情况主要发生在使用“本地方法”的情况下,本地方法是一种在Java中调用非Java代码的方式。
  不要过多地使用finalize(),它不是进行普通的清理工作的合适场所。

Joshua Bloch在题为“避免使用终结函数”一节中走得更远,他提到:“终结无法预料,常常是危险的,总之是多余的。”《Effective Java》,第20页,(Addison-Wesley 2001)

5.4 成员初始化

  Java尽力保证:所有变量在使用前都能得到恰当的初始化

  • 对于方法的局部变量,如果使用前没有初始化,Java以编译时错误(注意,如果方法内的局部变量未被使用,将不会编译错误)的形式来贯彻这种保证。

  • 对于类的成员变量:

    // InitialValues.javapublic class InitialValues{    int j;    char c;
        MyClass mc;    public static void main(String[] args){        int i;        //i++; // Error -- i not initialized
            InitialValues obj = new InitialValues();
            System.out.println(obj.c);
            System.out.println(obj.j);
            System.out.println(obj.mc);
        }
    }
    class MyClass{}
    // Counter.javapublic class Counter{    int i;
        Counter(){
            i = 7;
        }
    }
    • 无法阻止自动初始化的进行,它将在构造器被调用之前发生,如下,i首先会被置0,然后变成7。

    • 成员变量是基本类型,Java会自动初始化初值0

    • 成员变量是引用类型,Java会自动初始化初值null;

5.5 对象的创建过程

  假设有个名为Dog的类:

  • 静态方法或域。当首次创建类对象时(构造器可以看成静态方法,但不是)或类的静态方法/静态域首次被访问时,Java解释器必须查找类路径,以定位Dog.class文件;

  • 载入Dog.class,执行静态初始化的所有动作,且只执行这一次;

  • 当调用new Dog(),首先将在堆上分配存储空间;

  • 存储空间清零。所以成员变量会置成0或null;

  • 执行所有出现于字段定义处的初始化动作。

  • 执行构造器

5.6 数组初始化

  可以将Java中的数组作为一种数组类型来理解

  • int[] a; 可以认为是 a 是一个数组引用,初始值为null

  • 初始化:

    • int[] a = new int[3]; 初始化各元素值为0,对于boolean,初始值为false;

    • int[] a = {1, 2, 3}; 初始化元素分别为1, 2, 3;

第6章 访问权限控制

6.1 Java解释器的运行过程:

  • 首先,找出环境变量CLASSPATH,用作查找.class文件的根目录。

  • 然后,从根目录开始,解释器获取包的名称并将句点替换成反斜杠(于是,package net.mrliuli.training 就变为 net\mrliuli\training 或 net/mrluli/training 或其他,这一切取决于操作系统)以从CLASSPATH根中获取一个相对路径

  • 将CLASSPATH根目录与上面获取的相对路径相连接得到一个绝对路径,用来查找.class文件。

Sun 将Java2中的JDK改造得更聪明了一些。在安装后你会发现,即使你未设立CLASSPATH,你也可以编译并运行基本的Java程序。

6.2 类的访问权限的一些限制

  • 同一个.java文件,只能有一个与文件同名的public类,可以有其它非public类

  • 同一个package内的不同文件中的类,可以互相访问。

  • 不同package中的类,如需访问,需要使用全限定名,如biz.superalloy.MyClass或通过import把biz.superalloy包引进来;

  • 类中的成员变量,不声明访问修饰符时,为“包访问权限”,有时也表示friendly,同一个文件的不同类之间可以互相访问。

  • 如果没能为类访问权限指定一个访问修饰符,它将会默认得到包访问权限

第7章 复用类

7.1 名称屏蔽

  在C++中,如果基类拥有一个已被多次重载的方法名称,那么在其派生类中重新定义该方法名称,就会屏蔽其基类中的任何版本,这叫做名称屏蔽。但是在Java中,就种情况下,不会发生名称屏蔽,即无论在派生类还是在基类中对方法进行定义,重载机制都可以正常工作。
  如下C++会产生名称屏蔽

// Hide.cpp
// #include "Hide.h"#include using namespace::std;

// Hide.h startclass Homer {
public:    Homer();
    ~Homer();
    void doh(char);
    void doh(float);
};class Milhouse {
public:    Milhouse();
    ~Milhouse();
};class Bart : public Homer {
public:    Bart();
    ~Bart();
    void doh(Milhouse*);
};
// Hide.h endHomer::Homer(){}Homer::~Homer(){}
void Homer::doh(char c){
    cout << "doh(char)" << endl;
}
void Homer::doh(float f){
    cout << "doh(float)" << endl;
}Milhouse::Milhouse(){}Milhouse::~Milhouse(){}Bart::Bart(){    Homer();
}Bart::~Bart(){}
void Bart::doh(Milhouse* m){
    cout << "doh(Milhouse)" << endl;
}

int main(int argc, char* argv[]){    Bart* b = new Bart();
    //b->doh('x'); // error C2664: 'void Bart::doh(Milhouse *)': cannot convert argument 1 from 'char' to 'Milhouse *'
    //b->doh(1.0f); // error C2664: 'void Bart::doh(Milhouse *)': cannot convert argument 1 from 'float' to 'Milhouse *'
    b->doh(new Milhouse());
    return 0;
}
/* Output:
* doh(Milhouse)*/

  而Java不会产生

// Hide.javaclass Homer{
    void doh(char c){
        System.out.println("doh(char)");
    }    void doh(float f){
        System.out.println("doh(float)");
    }
}class Milhouse{}class Bart extends Homer{
    /* 如果使用这个注解,编译时会报错:
    * “方法不会覆盖或实现超类型的方法” -- method does not override a method from its superclass
    * 因为你是想要重写的,但却进行了重载。
    */
    //@Override 
    void doh(Milhouse m){
        System.out.println("doh(Milhouse)");
    }
}public class Hide{
    public static void main(String[] args){
        Bart b = new Bart();
        b.doh('x');
        b.doh(1.0f);
        b.doh(new Milhouse());
    }
}/* Output:
*  doh(char)
*  doh(float)
*  doh(Milhouse)
*/

7.2 @Override注解

  Java SE5新增加了@Override注解,可以把它当作关键字来用,它的作用是告诉编译器我想重写这个方法,因为Java不会产生名称屏蔽,所以如果我不留心重载了,编译器就会报错来告诉我违背了我的初衷。

7.3 final关键字

  根据上下文环境,Java的关键字final的含义存在着细微的区别,但通常它指的是“这是无法改变的。”不想改变可能出于两种理由:设计或效率。可能使用到final的三种情况:数据、方法和类。

7.3.1 final数据
  • final 基本类型数据

  基本类型变量应用final关键字时,将向编译器告之此变量是恒定不变的,即它是编译期常量。这样编译器可在编译时执行计算式,从而减轻了运行时负担(提高效率)。编译期常量在定义(声明)时必须对其赋值(声明时也可以不赋(此时叫空白final),但必须在构造器中赋值,所以final域在使用前总是被初始化。)。final常量常与static一起使用,强调只有一份。编译期常量(带有恒定初始值),即 static final 的基本类型变量全用大写字母命名,并且字与字之间用下划线隔开(这就像C常量一样,C常量是这一命名传统的发源地)。ds
- final 对象引用

  用于对象引用,则引用恒定不变,即一旦引用初始化指向一个对象,就无法再把它改变为指向另一个引用,但对象其自身是可以被修改的。这种情形同样适用数组,因为如前面所述,Java数组也可(看作)是引用

  • final参数

  指明为final的方法参数,意味着方法内只能读而不能修改参数,这一特性主要用来向匿名内部类传递数据。

7.3.2 final方法
  • 使用final方法的原因有两个:

    • 锁定方法,以防任何继承类修改它的含义。这是出于设计的考虑。

    • 效率。在Java早期版本中,方法声明为final,就是同意编译器针对该方法的所有调用都转为内嵌调用。而在Java SE5/6时,应该让编译器和JVM云处理效率问题,只有在想要明确禁止覆盖时,才将方法设置为final的

  • finalprivate关键字

    • 类中所有的private方法都隐式地指定为是final。由于无法取用private方法,所以也就无法覆盖它。

    • 派生类中试图“覆盖”父类中一个private方法(隐含是final的),似乎奏效,编译器不会出错,但实际上只是在派生类中生成了一个新的方法,此时并没有覆盖父类的private方法。

// FinalOverridingIllusion.javaclass WithFinals{
    private final void f(){
        System.out.println("WithFinals.f()");
    }    // Automatically "final"
    private void g(){
        System.out.println("WithFinals.g()");
    }
}class OverridingPrivate extends WithFinals{
    public final void f(){
        System.out.println("OverridingPrivate.f()");
    }    public void g(){
        System.out.println("OverridingPrivate.g()");
    }
}public class FinalOverridingIllusion{
    public static void main(String[] args){
        OverridingPrivate op = new OverridingPrivate();
        op.f();
        op.g();        // You can upcast
        WithFinals wf = op;        // But you can't call the methods:
        //wf.f();
        //wf.g();
    }
}/* Output:
* OverridingPrivate.f()
* OverridingPrivate.g()
* */
7.3.3 final类

  final类表明对该类的设计永不需要变动,或者出于安全的考虑,你不希望它有子类。因为final类禁止继承,所以final类中所有的方法都隐式指定为是final的,因为无法覆盖它们。在final类中可以给方法添加final修饰词,但这不会增添任何意义。

7.3.4 有关final的忠告

  在设计类时,将方法指明是final的,应该说是明智的
- Java1.0/1.1中Vector类中的方法均没有设计成final的,然后Statck继承了Vector,就是说Stack是个Vector,这从逻辑观点看是不正确的,还有Vector中的addElement()elementAt()是同步的,导致执行开销大,可能会抹煞final的好处。所以Vector的设计不合理,现代Java的容器ArrayList替代了VectorArrayList要合理得多,但遗憾的是仍然存在用旧容器库编写新程序代码的情况。
- Java1.0/1.1中的Hashtable类也是不包含任何final方法。现代Java的容器库用HashMap代替了Hastable

7.4. 初始化及类的加载

7.4.1 类的加载

  Java采用了一种不同的对类加载的方式,Java每个类的编译代码都存在于它自己的独立的文件中(.class文件)。该文件只在其代码需要被使用时才会被加载(That file isn’t loaded until the code is needed)。通常,可以说“类的代码在初次使用时才加载。”这通常是指加载发生于构造类的第一个对象之时,但是当访问static域或static方法时,也会发生加载。(构造器也是static方法,尽管static关键字并没有地写出来。因此更准确地讲,++类是在其任何static成员被访问时加载的++。)

7.4.2 初始化

  初次使用之处也是staic初始化发生之处。所有的static对象和static代码段都会在加载时依程序中的顺序(即,定义类时的书写顺序)而依次初始化。当然,定义为static的东西只会被初始化一次。

第8章 多态(Polymorphism)

  多态(也称作动态绑定后期绑定运行时绑定)。

8.1 方法调用绑定(Method-call binding)

  将一个方法调用与一个方法主体关联起来称作绑定。Connecting a mehtod call to a mehtod body is called binding.

  • 若在程序执行前进行绑定(如果有的话,由编译器和连接程序实现),叫做前期绑定。它是面向过程语言中不需要选择就默认的绑定方式。例如,C只有一种方法调用,那就是前期绑定。

    When binding is performed before the program is run (by the compiler and linker, if there is one), it’s called early binding. You might not have heared the term before because it has never been an option with procedural language. C compilers have only one kind of method call, and that’s early binding.

  • 后期绑定就是在运行时根据对象的类型进行绑定后期绑定也叫做动态绑定或运行时绑定。如果一种语言想实现后期绑定,就必须具有某种机制,以便在运行时能判断对象的类型,从而调用恰当的方法。也就是说,编译器一直不知道对象的类型,但是方法调用机制能找到正确的方法体,并加以调用。后期绑定机制随编程语言的不同而有所不同,但是只要想一下就会得知,不管怎样都必须在对象中安置某种“类型信息”

    The solution is called late binding, which means that the binding occurs at run time, based on the type of object. Late binding is also called dynamic binding  or runtime binding. When a language implements late binding, there must be some mechanism to determine the type of the object at run time and to call the appropriate method. That is, the compiler still doesn’t know the object type, but the mehtod-callmechanism finds out and calls the correct method body. The late-binding mechanism varies from language to language, but you can imagine that some sort of type information must be installd in the objects.

  • 再谈final方法
      如Chapter7所说,final方法可以防止其他人覆盖该方法。但更重要的一点是:这样做可以有效地关闭动态绑定,或者说,告诉编译器不需要对其进行动态绑定。这样,编译器就可以为final方法调用生成更有效的代码。然而,大多数情况下,这样做对程序的整体性能不会有什么改观。所以,最好根据设计来决定是否使用final,而不是出于试图提高性能的目的来使用final

    Why would you declare a method final? As noted in the last chapter, it prevents anyone from overriding that method. Perhaps more important, it effectively “turns offdynamic binding, or rather it tells the compiler that dynamic binding isn’t necessary.This allows the compiler to generate slightly more efficient code for final method calls. However, in most cases it won’t make any overall performance diffeence in your program, so it’s best to only use final as a design decision, and not as an attempt to improve performance.

8.2 域与静态方法

  • 域是不具有多态性的,只有普通的方法调用是多态的。如果直接访问某个域,这个访问就将在编译期进行解析,即域是静态解析的。
      如下,当Sub对象转型为Super引用时,任何域访问操作都将由编译器解析,因此不是多态的。Super.field和Sub.field分配了不同的存储空间。这样,Sub实际上包含两个称为field的域:它自己的和它从Super处得到的。

// FieldAccess.java// Direct field access is determined at compile time.class Super{    public int field = 0;    public int getField(){return field;}
}
class Sub extends Super{    public int field = 1;    public int getField(){return field;}    public int getSuperField(){return super.getField();}
}public class FieldAccess{
    public static void main(String[] args){
        Super sup = new Sub();  // Upcast
        System.out.println("sup.field = " + sup.field + ". sup.getField() = " + sup.getField());
        Sub sub = new Sub();
        System.out.println("sub.field = " + sub.field + ". sub.getFiled() = " + sub.getField() + ". sub.getSuperField() = " + sub.getSuperField());
    }
}/** Output:
 *  sup.field = 0. sup.getField() = 1
 *  sub.field = 1. sub.getFiled() = 1. sub.getSuperField() = 0
 */
  • 静态方法也是不具有多态性的,如前文所述,静态方法是与类,而非与单个的对象相关联的。

8.3 构造器内部的多态方法的行为

  如果在构造器内部调用正在构造的对象的某个动态绑定方法,由于动态绑定是在运行时才决定的,而此时,该对象还正在构造中,所以它不知道自己属于哪个类(父类还是自己),并且方法所操纵的成员可能还未进行初始化,这可能会产生一引起难于发现的隐藏错误。

// PolyConstructors.java// Constructors and polymorphism// don't produce what you might expectclass Glyph{
    void draw(){
        System.out.println("Glyph.draw()");
    }
    Glyph(){
        System.out.println("Glyph() before draw()");
        draw();
        System.out.println("Glyph() after draw()");
    }
}class RoundGlyph extends Glyph{
    RoundGlyph(int r){
        radius = r;
        System.out.println("RoundGlyph.RoundGlyph(), radius = " + radius);
    }   
    private int radius = 1;
    void draw(){
        System.out.println("RoundGlyph.draw(), radius = " + radius);
    }
}
public class PolyConstructors {
    public static void main(String[] args){        new RoundGlyph(5);
    }
}/**Output:
 * Glyph() before draw()
 * RoundGlyph.draw(), radius = 0
 * Glyph() after draw()
 * RoundGlyph.RoundGlyph(), radius = 5
 */

  以上代码,构造RoundGlyph对象时,先调用父类构造器Glyph(),父类构造器中如我们所期,调用了多态的draw(),但是,由于 子类还没构造完成,所以打印的成员变量radius的值是0,而并不是我们想象的其默认的初始值1

8.4 初始化的实际过程

  1. 在其他任何事物发生之前,将分配给对象的存储空间初始化成二进制的零。

  2. 如前所述那样调用构造器。

  3. 按照声明的顺序调用成员的初始化方法。

  4. 调用导出类(派生类)的构造器主体。

Chapter 9 Interface

9.1 In C, there is only the concept of abstract class (without the abstract keyword), and there is no term for interface

  • C Use the virtual keyword to declare an intra-class method as a virtual function (such as virtual void f(); ) to achieve polymorphism (In C, a derived class can only override the virtual function of the parent class, while in Java, except for static methods, other methods It can be overridden, that is, it is polymorphic by default.). Otherwise, classes containing virtual functions are no different from other classes.

  • For virtual functions such as virtual void f() = 0;when declared, it constitutes a pure virtual function. Because a pure virtual function has no function body and is not a complete function, it cannot be called, memory space cannot be allocated for it, it cannot be instantiated, and it cannot create an object, so a class containing a pure virtual function in C is called Abstract Class (Abstract Class, note that in C, there is no abstractkeyword). Abstract classes usually serve as base classes (called Abstract base classes), allowing derived classes to implement pure virtual functions. Derived classes must implement pure virtual functions before they can be instantiated.

9.2 In Java, there are abstract and interface keywords through which abstract classes and interfaces are defined

  • Add the abstract keyword before class to define it as abstract class.

    • Abstract classes cannot be instantiated, that is, objects cannot be generated through new, but note that they can be generated by appending {} An anonymous implementation class is still not an instantiation of itself.

    • Abstract classes can have constructors, but they cannot be called directly. They are usually called by the implementation class constructor.

    • Add the abstract keyword before the method of the abstract class to define the abstract method, is equivalent to C Pure virtual function , derived classes must override this method before it can be instantiated. If there is an abstract method in a Java class, the abstract keyword must also be added before the class symbol, which is defined as Abstract class(There can be no abstract method).

    • There can be no abstract methods in an abstract class, that is, they can all be non-abstract methods with method bodies.

  • The abstract class further abstracts, that is, all methods have no specific implementation, only the form of the method is declared (the same as the declaration format of the function in the C header file ), and change the class keyword to the interfacekeyword, which creates a interface.

    • Interfaces can contain fields, and

      are implicitly static and final , Obviously, the fields in the interface cannot be empty final, These fields are not part of the interface, they are stored in the static storage area of ​​the interface.

    • You can add the

      public modifier before the interface keyword interface. If not added, the default is package access. The interface method defaults They are all of public.

    • Because the Java interface does not have any specific implementation, that is, there is no storage related to the interface, so you can define a Java class to

      implementsmultiple interfaces to achieve C The effect of multiple inheritance.

    • Java can define an interface to

      extends one or more interfaces to implement the extension of the interface.

    • Because the fields in the Java interface are automatically final and static, the interface becomes a convenient tool for creating constant groups. Before

      Java SE5, this method was used to produce enum effects. After Java SE5, Java has the enum keyword, so it makes no sense to use interfaces to group constants.

Chapter 10 Internal Classes

10.1 Linking to external classes (Java non-static ordinary internal classes automatically have access to all members of their external classes ).

Java ordinary inner classes can access all members of their

enclosing objects (enclosing object) without any special conditions. The design of C nested classes is just a name hiding mechanism, with no connection to the surrounding objects and no implicit access rights. In Java, when a class creates an inner class object, the inner class object must secretly capture a reference to the object of that outer class. Then, when you access a member of this enclosing class, you use that reference to select the member of the enclosing class. These details are handled by the compiler. Java's iterators reuse this feature.

// Sequence.javainterface Selector{    boolean end();
    Object current();    void next();
}public class Sequence{
    private Object[] items;    private int next = 0;    public Sequence(int size){ items = new Object[size]; }    public void add(Object x){        if(next != items.length) items[next++] = x;
    }    private class SequenceSelector implements Selector{
        private int i = 0;        public boolean end(){ return i == items.length; }        public Object current(){ return items[i]; }        public void next(){ if (i < items.length) i++; }        
    }    public Selector selector(){ return new SequenceSelector(); }    public static void main(String[] args){
        Sequence sequence = new Sequence(10);        for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++){
            sequence.add(Integer.toString(i));
        }
        Selector selector = sequence.selector();        while(!selector.end()){
            System.out.print(selector.current() + " ");
            selector.next();
        }
        System.out.println();
    }
}/**Output:
*  0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
*/

10.2 .this.new

  • Java非static的普通内部类可应用.this返回其外围对象的引用。

  • 外围对象可应用.new来生成一个内部类对象。

// DotThis.java// Qualifying access to the outer-class object.public class DotThis{    void f(){ System.out.println("DotThis.f()"); }    public class Inner{        public DotThis outer(){            return DotThis.this; // a plain "this" would be Inner's "this"
        }
    }    public Inner inner(){ return new Inner(); }    public static void main(String[] args){
        DotThis dt = new DotThis();
        DotThis.Inner dti = dt.inner();
        dti.outer().f();
    }
}/*Output:
* DotThis.f()
*/

10.3 匿名内部类

  Anonymous Inner Class.

10.4 Java嵌套类

  内部类声明为static时,不再包含外围对象的引用.this,称为嵌套类(与C++嵌套类大致相似,只不过在C++中那些类不能访问私有成员,而在Java中可以访问)。
- 创建嵌套类,不需要外围对象。
- 不能从嵌套类的对象中访问非静态的外围对象

10.4.1 接口内部的类

  嵌套类可以作为接口的一部分(正常情况下,接口内部不能放置任何代码)。放到接口中的任何类都自动是public和static的。因为类是static的,只是将嵌套类置于接口的命名空间内,这并不违反接口的规则

10.4.2 从多层嵌套类中访问外部类的成员

  一个内部类被嵌套多少层并不重要——它能透明地访问它所嵌入的外围类的所有成员,如下:

// MultiNestingAccess.javaclass MNA{    private void f(){}
    class A{        private void g(){}        public class B{            void h(){
                g();
                f();
            }
        }
    }
}public class MultiNestingAccess{    public static void main(String[] args){
        MNA mna = new MNA();
        MNA.A mnaa = mna.new A();
        MNA.A.B mnaab = mnaa.new B();
        mnaab.h();
    }
}

10.5 为什么需要内部类

  • 内部类继承自某个类或实现某个接口,内部类的代码操作创建它的外围类的对象。所以可以认为内部类提供了某种进入其外围类的窗口。

  • 内部类实现一个接口与外围类实现这个接口有什么区别呢?答案是:后者不是总能享用到接口带来的方便,有时需要用到接口的实现。所以,使用内部类最吸引人的原因是:
      每个内部类才能独立地继承自一个(接口的)实现,所以无论外围类是否已经继承了某个(接口的)实现,对于内部类都没有影响

  • 内部类使得多重继承的解决方案变得完整。接口解决了部分问题,而内部类有效地实现了“多重继承”。也就是说,内部类使得Java实现继承多个非接口类型(类或抽象类)。

// MultiInterfaces.java// two ways tha a clas can implement multiple interface.interface A{}interface B{}class X implements A, B {}class Y implements A {
    B makeB(){        // Amonymous inner class
        return new B() {};
    }
}public class MultiInterfaces{
    static void takesA(A a){}    static void takesB(B b){}    public static void main(String[] args){
        X x = new X();
        Y y = new Y();
        takesA(x);
        takesB(x);
        takesA(y);
        takesB(y.makeB());
    }
}

10.6 闭包与回调

  • 闭包(closure)是一个可调用的对象,它记录了一些信息,这些信息来自于创建它的作用域。通过这个定义可以看出内部类是面向对象的闭包,因为它不仅包含外围类对象(创建内部类的作用域)的信息,还自动拥有一个指向此外围类对象的引用(.this),在此作用域内,内部类有权操作所有的成员,包括private成员。

  • 回调(callback),通过回调,对象能够携带一些信息,这些信息允许它在稍后的某个时刻调用初始的对象。Java中没有指针,通过内部类提供的闭包功能可以实现回调

// Callbacks.java// using inner classes for callbacksinterface Incrementable{
    void increment();
}// Very simple to just implement the interface:class Callee1 implements Incrementable{
    private int i = 0;    public void increment(){
        System.out.println(++i);
    }
}class MyIncrement{
    public void increment(){ System.out.println("Other operation"); }    static void f(MyIncrement mi) { mi.increment(); }
}// If your class must implement increment() in some other way, you must use an inner class:class Callee2 extends MyIncrement{
    private int i = 0;    public void increment(){        super.increment();
        System.out.println(++i);
    }    private class Closure implements Incrementable{
        public void increment(){            // Specify outer-class method, otherwise you'd get an infinite recursion:
            Callee2.this.increment();
        }
    }
    Incrementable getCallbackReference(){        return new Closure();
    }
}class Caller{
    private Incrementable callbackReference;
    Caller(Incrementable cbh){ callbackReference = cbh; }    void go(){ callbackReference.increment(); }
}public class Callbacks {
    public static void main(String[] args){
        Callee1 c1 = new Callee1();
        Callee2 c2 = new Callee2();
        MyIncrement.f(c2);
        Caller caller1 = new Caller(c1);
        Caller caller2 = new Caller(c2.getCallbackReference());
        caller1.go();
        caller1.go();
        caller2.go();
        caller2.go();
    }
}/**Uoutput:
* Other operation
* 1
* 1
* 2
* Other operation
* 2
* Other operation
* 3
**/

10.7 Java接口和内部类总结

  Java的接口和内部类比其他面向对象的概念更深奥复杂,C++没有这些,将两者结合起来,同样能够解决C++中的用多重继承所能解决的问题。

第11章 持有对象

Java Programming Thoughts Learning Lesson (1): Chapters 1~13, 16

11.1 迭代器(Iterator)

  • Iterator迭代器使得客户端程序员不必知道或关心容器类的底层结构。

  • ListIterator只能用于各种List类的访问。ListIterator可以双向移动,而Iteraotr只能向前移动

11.2 ArrayList 和 LinkedList

  • 都可自动扩容。

  • ArrayList底层是数组结构,即连续存储空间,所以读取元素快。因可自动扩容,所以可以把ArrayList当作“可自动扩充自身尺寸的数组”看待。

  • LinkedList链表结构,所以插入元素快。

    • LinkedList具有能够直接实现(Stack)的所有功能的方法,因此可以直接将LinkedList作为栈使用。

    • LinkdedList也提供了支持队列(Queue)行为的方法,并且实现了Queue接口,所以也可以用作Queue。

11.3 Set 不保存重复元素

11.4 Map 将对象映射到其他对象的能力是一种解决编程问题的杀手锏

11.5 Collection 和 Iterator

  在Java中,Collection是描述所有序列容器的共性的根接口,它可能会被 认为是一个“附属接口”,即因为要表示其他若干个接口的共性而出现的接口。而在标准C++类库中并没有其容器的任何公共基类——容器之间的所有共性都是通过迭代器达成的。Java将两种方法绑定到了一起,因为实现Collection就意味着需要提供iterator()方法。

11.5 Foreach与迭代器

  foreach语法用于任何实现了Iterable接口的类。Collection接口扩展了Iterable接口,所以所有Collection对象都适用foreach语法。

11.6 容器的元素类型

  • 泛型之前的容器不能持有基本类型元素,显然数组是可以的。但是有了泛型,容器就可以指定并检查它们所持有对象的类型,并且有了自动包装机制,容器看起来还能够持有基本类型

  • 在Java中,任何基本类型都不能作为类型参数。因此不能创建ArrayListHashMap之类的东西。但是可以利用自动包装机制和基本类型的包装器来解决,自动包装机制将自动地实现intInteger的双向转换

// ListOfInt.javaimport java.util.*;public class ListOfInt{    public static void main(String[] args){        // 编译错误:意外的类型
        // List li = new ArrayList();
        // Map m = new HashMap();
        List li = new ArrayList();        for(int i = 0; i < 5; i++){
            li.add(i);      // int --> Integer
        }        for(int i : li){    // Integer --> int
            System.out.print(i + " ");
        }
    }
}/* Output:
0 1 2 3 4
*/

第12章 通过异常处理错误

12.1 异常

  异常允许我们(如果没有其他手段)强制程序停止运行,并告诉我们出现了什么问题,或者(理想状态下)强制程序处理问题,并返回到稳定状态。

12.2 终止与恢复

  异常处理理论上有两种基本模型。长久以来,尽管程序员们使用的操作系统支持恢复模型的异常处理,但他们最终还是转向使用类似“终止模型”的代码,并且忽略恢复行为。

  • Java支持终止模型(它是Java和C++所支持的模型)。这种模型假设错误非常关键,以至于程序无法返回到异常发生的地方继续执行。

  • 另一种模型称为恢复模型。意思是异常处理程序的工作是修正错误,然后重新尝试调用出问题的方法,并认为第二次能成功。

12.3 创建自定义异常

  所有标准异常都有两个构造器:一个是默认构造器;另一个是接受字符串作为参数,以便能把相关信息放入异常对象的构造器。

// FullConstructors.javaclass MyException extends Exception{    public MyException(){}    public MyException(String msg){ super(msg); }
}public class FullConstructors{    public static void f() throws MyException{
        System.out.println("Throwing MyException form f()");        throw new MyException();
    }    public static void g() throws MyException{
        System.out.println("Throwing MyException form g()");        throw new MyException("Originated in g()");
    }    public static void main(String[] args){        try{
            f();
        }catch(MyException e){
            e.printStackTrace(System.out);
        }        try{
            g();
        }catch(MyException e){
            e.printStackTrace(System.out);
        }
    }
}/*Output:
Throwing MyException form f()
MyException
        at FullConstructors.f(FullConstructors.java:11)
        at FullConstructors.main(FullConstructors.java:19)
Throwing MyException form g()
MyException: Originated in g()
        at FullConstructors.g(FullConstructors.java:15)
        at FullConstructors.main(FullConstructors.java:24)
*/

12.4 printStackTrace()

  Throwable类声明了printStackTrace()方法,它将打印“从方法调用处直到异常抛出处”的方法调用序列。printStackTrace()方法所提供的信息可以通过getStackTrace()方法来直接访问,这个方法将返回一个由栈轨迹中的元素所构成的数组,其中每一个元素都表示栈中的一桢。元素0是栈顶元素,并且是调用序列中的最后一个方法调用(这个Throwable被创建和抛出之处)。数组中的最后一个元素和栈底是调用序列中的第一个方法调用。如下:

// WhoCalled.java// Programmatic access to stack trace informationpublic class WhoCalled{    static void f(){        // Generate an exception to fill in the stack trace
        try{            throw new Exception();
        }catch(Exception e){            for(StackTraceElement ste : e.getStackTrace()){
                System.out.println(ste.getMethodName());
            }
        }
    }    static void g(){ f(); }    static void h(){ g(); }    public static void main(String[] args){
        f();
        System.out.println("-------------------------------");
        g();
        System.out.println("-------------------------------");
        h();
    }
}/*Output:
f
main
-------------------------------
f
g
main
-------------------------------
f
g
h
main
*/

12.5 为异常先占个位子

  可以声明方法将抛出异常,实际上却不抛出。这样做的好处是,为异常先占个位子,以后就可以抛出这种异常而不用修改已有的代码
  在编译时被强制检查的异常称为被检查的异常

12.6 异常链

  常常会想要在捕获一个异常后抛出另一个异常,并且希望把原始异常的信息保存下来,这被称为异常链。JDK1.4以后,所有Throwable的子类在构造器中都可以接受一个cause对象作为参数。这个cause就用来表示原始异常,这样通过把原始异常传递给新的异常,使得即使在当前位置创建并了新的异常,也能通过这个异常链追踪到异常最初发生的位置。
  在Throwable的子类中,只有Error(用于Java虚拟机报告系统错误)、Exception以及RuntimeException三种基本的异常提供了带cause参数的构造器。

12.7 Java标准异常

  只能在代码中忽略RuntimeException(及其子类)类型的异常,其他类型异常的处理都是由编译器强制实施的。究其原因,RuntimeException代表的是编程错误。

12.8 缺憾:异常丢失

  用某些特殊的方式使用finally子句,可能会丢失异常,一种简单的丢失异常的方式是从finally子句中返回。

12.9 finally子句

  • 在异常没有被当前的异常处理程序捕获的情况下,异常处理机制也会在跳到更高一层的异常处理程序之前,执行finanlly子句。

  • 当涉及breakcontinue语句的时候,finally子句也会得到执行。

  • finally子句会在执行return语句前执行,即它总是会执行,所以在一个方法中, 可以从多个点返回,并且可以保证重要的清理工作仍旧会执行。

12.10 异常的限制

  当要覆盖方法的时候,只能抛出在基类方法的异常说明里列出的那些异常。这个限制很有用,因为这意味着,当基类使用的代码应用到其派生类对象的时候,一样能够工作。

12.11 构造器

  如果在构造器内抛出了异常,清理行为也许就不能正常工作了。

12.12 异常匹配

  抛出异常的时候,异常处理系统会按照代码的书写顺序抛出“最近”的处理程序。找到匹配的处理程序之后,它就认为异常将得到处理,然后就不再继续查找

12.13 总结

  “报告”功能是异常的精髓所在。Java坚定地强调将所有的错误都以异常形式报告的这一事实,正是它远远超过诸如C++这类语言的长处之一,因为在C++这类语言中,需要以大量不同的方式来报告错误,或者根本就没有提供错误报告功能。

第13章 字符串

13.1 不可变字符串

  String对象是不可变的。String类中每个看起来会修改String值的方法,实际上都是创建了一个全新的String对象,以包含修改后的字符串内容。而最初的String对象则丝毫未动。

13.2 重载“+”与 StringBuilder

  • 用于String的“+”与“+=”是Java中仅有的两个重载过的运算符Java不允许程序员重载任何运算符(但其实Java语言比C++更容易实现运算符的重载)。

  • String的不可变性带来了一定的效率问题,比如String的“+”运算,每“+”一次都会生成一个新的String对象。Java编译器一般会自动优化,但不同情况下,优化的程度不够

  •   以下类运行javap -c Concatenation.class 反编译后,可见编译器自动引入了java.lang.StringBuilder类,帮助了优化。

// Concatenation.javapublic class Concatenation{
    public static void main(String[] args){
        String mango = "mango";
        String s = "abc" + mango + "def" + 47;
        System.out.println(s);
    }
}/**Output:
* abcmangodef47
**/
Compiled from "Concatenation.java"public class Concatenation {  public Concatenation();
    Code:       0: aload_0       1: invokespecial #1                  // Method java/lang/Object."":()V
       4: return

  public static void main(java.lang.String[]);
    Code:       0: ldc           #2                  // String mango
       2: astore_1       3: new           #3                  // class java/lang/StringBuilder
       6: dup       7: invokespecial #4                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder."":()V
      10: ldc           #5                  // String abc
      12: invokevirtual #6                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.append:(Ljava/lang/String;)Ljava/lang/StringBuilder;
      15: aload_1      16: invokevirtual #6                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.append:(Ljava/lang/String;)Ljava/lang/StringBuilder;
      19: ldc           #7                  // String def
      21: invokevirtual #6                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.append:(Ljava/lang/String;)Ljava/lang/StringBuilder;
      24: bipush        47
      26: invokevirtual #8                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.append:(I)Ljava/lang/StringBuilder;
      29: invokevirtual #9                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.toString:()Ljava/lang/String;
      32: astore_2      33: getstatic     #10                 // Field java/lang/System.out:Ljava/io/PrintStream;
      36: aload_2      37: invokevirtual #11                 // Method java/io/PrintStream.println:(Ljava/lang/String;)V
      40: return}
  • 但以下情况运行javap -c WhitherStringBuilder反编译后,显示优化程度不够,方法implicit()显示StringBuilder是在循环之内构造的,这样每经过一次循环就会构造珍上新StringBuilder对象,而explict()只生成一个StringBuilder对象,更优。

// WhitherStringBuilder.javapublic class WhitherStringBuilder{    public String implicit(String[] fields){
        String result = "";        for(int i = 0; i < fields.length; i++){
            result += fields[i];
        }        return result;
    }    public String explicit(String[] fields){
        StringBuilder result = new StringBuilder();        for(int i = 0; i < fields.length; i++){
            result.append(fields[i]);
        }        return result.toString();
    }
}
Compiled from "WhitherStringBuilder.java"public class WhitherStringBuilder {  public WhitherStringBuilder();
    Code:       0: aload_0       1: invokespecial #1                  // Method java/lang/Object."":()V
       4: return

  public java.lang.String implicit(java.lang.String[]);
    Code:       0: ldc           #2                  // String
       2: astore_2       3: iconst_0       4: istore_3       5: iload_3       6: aload_1       7: arraylength       8: if_icmpge     38
      11: new           #3                  // class java/lang/StringBuilder
      14: dup      15: invokespecial #4                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder."":()V
      18: aload_2      19: invokevirtual #5                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.append:(Ljava/lang/String;)Ljava/lang/StringBuilder;
      22: aload_1      23: iload_3      24: aaload      25: invokevirtual #5                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.append:(Ljava/lang/String;)Ljava/lang/StringBuilder;
      28: invokevirtual #6                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.toString:()Ljava/lang/String;
      31: astore_2      32: iinc          3, 1
      35: goto          5
      38: aload_2      39: areturn  public java.lang.String explicit(java.lang.String[]);
    Code:       0: new           #3                  // class java/lang/StringBuilder
       3: dup       4: invokespecial #4                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder."":()V
       7: astore_2       8: iconst_0       9: istore_3      10: iload_3      11: aload_1      12: arraylength      13: if_icmpge     30
      16: aload_2      17: aload_1      18: iload_3      19: aaload      20: invokevirtual #5                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.append:(Ljava/lang/String;)Ljava/lang/StringBuilder;
      23: pop      24: iinc          3, 1
      27: goto          10
      30: aload_2      31: invokevirtual #6                  // Method java/lang/StringBuilder.toString:()Ljava/lang/String;
      34: areturn
}

13.3 无意识的递归

  由String对象后面跟着一个“+”,再后面的对象不是String时,编译器会使后面的对象通过toString()自动类型转换成String,如果这发生在自定义的类的重写的toString()方法体内,就有可能发生无限递归,运行时抛出java.lang.StackOverflowError栈溢出异常。

// InfiniteRecursion.javapublic class InfiniteRecursion{    public String toString(){        //应该调用Object.toString()方法,所以此处应为super.toString()。
        return " InfiniteRecursion address: " + this + "\n"; 
    }    public static void main(String[] args){
        List v = new ArrayList();        for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
            v.add(new InfiniteRecursion());
        System.out.println(v);
    }
}

文末:

  这些章节内容算是Java的基础,整理出来作为第一部分,算是温故知新吧。

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